美国工会
| 劳工 |
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美国的工会受法律认可为代表劳工利益的组织。工会行使集体协商权，为会员谈判劳动条件、工资、福利；并监督、纠正雇主违法或违背劳动契约的管理行为，必要时以争议行为作为谈判筹码。较大的工会还会透过政治游说或竞选，影响美国联邦政府及各州政治人物的决策。
大多数美国的工会都是两个大型工会联盟的会员工会，分别是1955年成立的美国劳工联合会-产业工会联合会（AFL-CIO），与2005年自AFL-CIO分家的变革谋胜工会联合会。两者都主张自己代表美国和加拿大劳工的政治利益，积极从事政治游说工作。其中，AFL-CIO特别关注全球贸易议题。
1983年时，美国的工会共有1,770万名会员，工会组织率为20.1%；然而2013年却仅剩1,450万名会员，工会组织率仅有10.8%[1] 民营事业单位的工会组织率甚至仅有7%[2]，创下1932年来的最低纪录。与其它国家相比，2013年时法国的工会组织率为7.7%、德国为18.1%、加拿大为27.1%，冰岛更以85.5%的工会组织率冠居全球。[3]以统计数字而言，美国劳工参与工会的比例显著偏低。美国的工会组织率与虽大幅滑落，但仍能透过群众动员或跨领域结盟（例如与移民权益、贸易政策、健康照顾与维生工资等议题团体合作），对美国政治有一定程度的影响力。其中，美国的工会尤其关注各级政府因预算缩减，产生劳工退休金减少或延迟给付等问题。[4] 如有茶党背景的共和党籍威斯康星州州长斯考特·沃克就曾透过删减预算限制公部门工会的集体协商权。
21世纪的美国工会运动以公部门受雇者，如公务员、教师、消防员、警察、清洁队员等劳工为主力。此外，工会会员不成比例地以年长、男性劳工居多，且以美国东北部、中西部及加州劳工为主。[5] 整体而言，一个美国工会若能掌握工作和劳动市场特性，平均而言能让工会会员比非会员多10－30%工资[6]；而在工会组织率较高的州，其劳工比其它州份的劳工有较高的收入和生活水准。国际货币基金组织则进一步将美国的收入差距问题，归因于美国整体的劳工运动与工会组织率衰退所致。[7][7][8][9][10]
历史
[编辑]19世纪中叶，工业革命对人类经济、社会带来巨大变革，劳资关系逐渐受到社会瞩目，工会也随之诞生。美国早期的工会诞生于南北战争之后，1880年代的劳动骑士团是美国最具影响力的劳工团体，但因组织松散、缺乏有效领导中心和组织目标不一致等因素，并受到资方和政府联手打压而解散。
1886年，龚帕斯创立美国劳工联合会，创立时仍是不同职种的地方工会组成的松散团体，透过协调、支持劳工罢工发展茁壮，如今已是美国最具影响力的工会团体。
1930年代，美国第32任总统富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福推行新政，其中《华格纳法案》保障工会的组织权利，促使美国劳工扩大团结、提升组织率。因此，美国的工会在政治上多倾向民主党，在罗斯福时期更加入新政联盟，支持罗斯福胜选连任。
二战后
[编辑]1946年，亲商的保守派政治人物在选举中大胜，美国国会在1947年通过共和党籍参议员罗伯特·A·塔夫脱起草的《塔夫特-哈特莱法案》。该法案不只受到共和党人支持，连多数民主党人也赞成该法案；即使时任美国第33任总统的哈里·杜鲁门动用否决权，仍遭跨党派议员组成的保守联盟推翻。[11]《塔夫特-哈特莱法案》禁止工会向候选人提供政治献金、以“危害国家安全”之名提高工会发动罢工的门槛，并强迫工会除名有共产主义倾向的干部（后美国最高法院裁定该条款违宪，不再适用）；因而遭到美国工运圈强力抵制，但仍无力回天。国会在1959年通过《劳资关系报告法》，要求美国各级工会需向美国劳工部缴交年度报告，以限制有犯罪前科者担任工会管理职务，从而加强联邦政府对国际卡车司机工会等工会的行政控制。[12][13]
美国的工会组织率在1954年达到高峰，为35%；而工会会员人数则以1979年最多，达2,100万人。其后人数因民营部门工会组织不易逐年下滑。
参见
[编辑]- Labor federation competition in the United States
- Union affiliation by U.S. state
- Public-sector trade unions in the United States
历史
国际
参考文献
[编辑]- ^ Bureau of Labor Statistics, "Union Membership Summary" Jan 24, 2014 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- ^ Union Members Summary （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 24, 2014 Retrieved: 11 March 2014
- ^ See: Trade Union Density. （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- ^ Alicia H. Munnell. State and Local Pensions: What Now?. Brookings Institution Press. 2012: 4–5 [2017-03-19]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.
- ^ Not With a Bang, But a Whimper: The Long, Slow Death Spiral of America's Labor Movement （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）| Richard Yeselson| June 6, 2012
- ^ 8-31-2004 Union Membership Trends in the United States （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Gerald Mayer.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Politics that Work (April 3, 2015).
- ^ Doree Armstrong (February 12, 2014).
- ^ Keith Naughton, Lynn Doan and Jeffrey Green (February 20, 2015).
- ^ Michael Hiltzik (March 25, 2015).
- ^ Benjamin C. Waterhouise, Lobbying in America （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, (Princeton University Press, 2013) 53.
- ^ William H. Holley et al.Jr. The Labor Relations Process, 10th ed.. Cengage Learning. 2011: 85 [2017-03-20]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.
- ^ David Scott Witwer. Corruption and Reform in the Teamsters Union. University of Illinois Press. 2003: 131ff [2017-03-20]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-15）.
参考书目
[编辑]调查报告
[编辑]- Arnesen, Eric, ed. Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History (2006), 3 vol; 2064pp; 650 articles by experts excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Beard, Mary Ritter. A Short History of the American Labor Movement 1920 - 176 pages online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Beik, Millie, ed. Labor Relations: Major Issues in American History (2005) over 100 annotated primary documents excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Boris, Eileen, and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds. Major Problems In The History Of American Workers: Documents and Essays (2002)
- Brody, David. In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker (1993) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Browne, Waldo Ralph. What's what in the Labor Movement: A Dictionary of Labor Affairs and Labor (1921) 577pp; encyclopedia of labor terms, organizations and history. complete text online （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Foster Rhea Dulles. Labor in America: A History (2004), textbook, based on earlier textbooks by Dulles.
- Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Warren Van Tine, eds. Labor Leaders in America (1987) biographies of key leaders, written by scholars excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- LeBlanc, Paul. A Short History of the U.S. Working Class: From Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century (1999), 160pp excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. State of the Union: A Century of American Labor (2003) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Perlman, Selig. A History of Trade Unionism in the United States 1922 - 313 pages online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Taylor, Paul F. The ABC-CLIO Companion to the American Labor Movement (1993) 237pp; short encyclopedia
- Zieger, Robert H., and Gilbert J. Gall, American Workers, American Unions: The Twentieth Century(3rd ed. 2002) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Zieger, Robert H. For Jobs and Freedom: Race and Labor in America Since 1865 (2007) excerpt and text search （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
1900年
[编辑]- Commons, John R. History of Labour in the United States - vol 1 and Vol. 2 1860-1896 (1918) vol 2 online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (note spelling of "Labour")
- Commons, John R. "American Shoemakers, 1648-1895: A Sketch of Industrial Evolution," Quarterly Journal of Economics 24 (November, 1909), 39-83. in JSTOR （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Commons, John R. ed. Trade Unionism and Labor Problems (1905) articles by experts on unions and working condition online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Grob, Gerald N. Workers and Utopia: A Study of Ideological Conflict in the American Labor Movement, 1865-1900 (1961) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Hall, John P. "The Knights of St. Crispin in Massachusetts, 1869-1878," Journal of Economic History 18 (June, 1958), p 161-175 in JSTOR （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Laslett, John H. M. Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924 (1970) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Mandel, Bernard. Samuel Gompers: A Biography (1963) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Orth, Samuel P. The Armies of Labor: A Chronicle of the Organized Wage-Earners (1919) short popular overview online edition
- Taillon, Paul Michel. Good, Reliable, White Men: Railroad Brotherhoods, 1877-1917 (2009)
- Taft, Philip Taft and Philip Ross, "American Labor Violence: Its Causes, Character, and Outcome," in The History of Violence in America: A Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, ed. Hugh Davis Graham and Ted Robert Gurr, 1969. online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Van Tine, Warren R. The Making of the Labor Bureaucrat: Union Leadership in the United States, 1870-1920 (1973) online edition
- Voss, Kim. The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (1993) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Weir, Robert E. Beyond Labor's Veil: The Culture of the Knights of Labor (1996) online edition （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Bibliography of online resources on railway labor in late 19th century （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
1900年–1932年
[编辑]- Bernstein, Irving. The Lean Years: A History of the American Worker, 1920-33 (1966)
- Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (1965)
- Dubofsky, Melvyn and Warren Van Tine. John L. Lewis: A Biography (1986)
- Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (1965)
- Faue, Elizabeth. Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (1991)
- Fraser, Steve. Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (1993)
- Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920-1935 (1994)
- Greene, Julie . Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881-1917 (1998)
- Hooker, Clarence. Life in the Shadows of the Crystal Palace, 1910-1927: Ford Workers in the Model T Era (1997)
- Laslett, John H. M. Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924 (1970)
- Karson, Marc. American Labor Unions and Politics, 1900-1918 (1958)
- McCartin, Joseph A. Labor's Great War: The Struggle for Industrial Democracy and the Origins of Modern American Labor Relations, 1912-1921 (1997)
- Mandel, Bernard. Samuel Gompers: A Biography (1963)
- Meyer, Stephen. The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (1981)
- Mink, Gwendolyn. Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (1986)
- Orth, Samuel P. The Armies of Labor: A Chronicle of the Organized Wage-Earners (1919) short overview
- Quint, Howard H. The Forging of American Socialism: Origins of the Modern Movement (1964)
- Warne, Colston E. ed. The Steel Strike of 1919 (1963), primary and secondary documents
- Zieger, Robert. Republicans and Labor, 1919-1929. (1969)
早期文献
[编辑]- Gompers, Samuel. Seventy Years of Life and Labor: An Autobiography (1925)
1932年 - 1955年
[编辑]- Bernstein, Irving. Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941 (1970)
- Boyle, Kevin. The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945-1968 (1995)
- Campbell, D'Ann. "Sisterhood versus the Brotherhoods: Women in Unions" Women at War With America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (1984).
- Dubofsky, Melvyn and Warren Van Time John L. Lewis (1986).
- Faue, Elizabeth. Community of Suffering & Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (1991), social history
- Fraser, Steve. Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (1993).
- Galenson, Walter. The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement, 1935-1941 (1960)
- Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics, 1920-1935 (1994)
- Jensen, Richard J. "The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19 (1989) p. 553-83
- Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. (1999) recent narrative.
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (2003)
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. The Most Dangerous Man in Detroit: Walter Reuther and the Fate of American Labor (1995)
- Miller, Sally M., and Daniel A. Cornford eds. American Labor in the Era of World War II (1995), essays by historians, mostly on California
- Seidman; Joel. Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen: The Internal Political Life of a National Union (1962)
- Vittoz, Stanley. New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (1987)
- Zieger, Robert H. The CIO, 1935-1955 (1995)
公平就业委员会
[编辑]- Collins, William J. "Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets," American Economic Review 91:1 (March 2001), pp. 272–286
- Kersten, Andrew Edmund. Race, Jobs, and the War: The FEPC in the Midwest, 1941-46 (2000) online review
- Reed, Merl E. Seedtime for the Modern Civil Rights Movement: The President's Committee on Fair Employment Practice, 1941-1946 (1991)
塔夫特-哈特莱法案与全国劳工关系法
[编辑]- Abraham, Steven E. "The Impact of the Taft-Hartley Act on the Balance of Power in Industrial Relations" American Business Law Journal Vol. 33, 1996
- Ballam, Deborah A. "The Impact of the National Labor Relations Act on the U.S. Labor Movement" American Business Law Journal, Vol. 32, 1995
- Brooks, George W., Milton Derber, David A. McCabe, Philip Taft. Interpreting the Labor Movement (1952)
- Gall, Gilbert J. The Politics of Right to Work: The Labor Federations as Special Interests, 1943-1979 (1988)
- Hartley Jr. Fred A., and Robert A. Taft. Our New National Labor Policy: The Taft-Hartley Act and the Next Steps (1948)
- Lee, R. Alton. Truman and Taft-Hartley: A Question of Mandate (1966)
- Millis, Harry A., and Emily Clark Brown. From the Wagner Act to Taft-Hartley: A Study of National Labor Policy and Labor Relations (1950)
早期文献
[编辑]- Christman, Henry M. ed. Walter P. Reuther: Selected Papers (1961)
1955年至今
[编辑]- Bennett, James T., and Bruce E. Kaufman. What do unions do?: a twenty-year perspective (2007)
- Dark; Taylor E. The Unions and the Democrats: An Enduring Alliance (1999)
- Dine, Philip. State of the Unions: How Labor Can Strengthen the Middle Class, Improve Our Economy, and Regain Political Influence (2007)
- Fantasia, Rick, and Kim Voss. Hard Work: Remaking the American Labor Movement (2004)
- Galenson, Walter; The American Labor Movement, 1955-1995 (1996)
- Goldberg, Arthur J. AFL-CIO, Labor United (1956)
- Leiter, Robert D. The Teamsters Union: A Study of Its Economic Impact (1957)
- Lichtenstein, Nelson. "Two Roads Forward for Labor: The AFL–CIO's New Agenda." Dissent 61.1 (2014): 54-58. Online[永久失效链接]
- Lipset, Seymour Martin, ed. Unions in Transition: Entering the Second Century (1986)
- Mort, Jo-Ann, ed. Not Your Father's Union Movement: Inside the AFL-CIO" (2002)
- Rosenfeld, Jake. What Unions No Longer Do. (Harvard University Press, 2014) ISBN 0674725115
- Yates, Michael D. Why Unions Matter (2009)
外部链接
[编辑]- AFL-CIO official Web site （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Change to Win Federation official Web site （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- The Challenges of Today's Labor Unions （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- The Cost of a Decline in Unions （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (February 2015), Nicholas Kristof, The New York Times
- The incredible decline of American unions, in one animated map （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (February 2015), Ana Swanson, The Washington Post
- What Happened to Unions in the Midwest? （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (Feb. 2015), Melanie Trottman and Eric Morath, The Wall Street Journal
- Unions still matter （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (April 2015), Sean McElwee, Al Jazeera America.
- Americans Don't Miss Manufacturing – They Miss Unions （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. FiveThirtyEight, May 13, 2016.
