美西战争
美西战争[a] | |||||||||
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菲律宾革命、美洲非殖民化和古巴独立战争的一部分 | |||||||||
马尼拉湾海战 | |||||||||
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参战方 | |||||||||
美国 古巴革命党人 菲律宾革命党人 | |||||||||
指挥官与领导者 | |||||||||
兵力 | |||||||||
300,000人 (总共)[5]
40,000人[8] |
总共:339,783人[9]
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伤亡与损失 | |||||||||
美国: 古巴和菲律宾:未知 |
西班牙: |
美西战争(英语:Spanish-American War;西班牙语:Guerra hispano-estadounidense),发生于1898年4-8月,是一场美国与各独立势力共同对抗西班牙帝国的战争,战争于美国战舰缅因号在古巴哈瓦那港沉没后爆发。这场战争使美国成为加勒比海地区的主要势力,并获得西班牙在太平洋的领地。
简介
[编辑]1895年,古巴与菲律宾的独立派发动革命,开始反抗西班牙统治,但官方进行残酷的军事镇压,又株连不少民众,波及美国侨民。消息传来,美国人相当愤慨,又加上美国政府觊觎加勒比海已久,情势紧张。
美国政府派军舰缅因号至古巴保护侨民,却在1898年2月15日于哈瓦那近海爆炸沉没。爆炸的威力巨大,几乎炸掉前侧三分之一的船体,其余的残骸迅速沉入海面。此事件造成266人死亡,其中绝大多数为士兵,爆炸时全舰军官几乎都在岸上,只有两名军官在舰上。对此次爆炸事件的起因及经过至今没有明确的调查结果。
1898年3月27日,美国通过驻西班牙公使,提出要求西班牙在古巴停火和取消集中营等条件。西班牙为了避免对美作战,于4月9日宣布休战。但美国国会发布决议:“承认古巴独立,要求西班牙军队撤出古巴。同时授予总统使用武力的权力,并宣告美国无意兼并古巴。”4月22日,美国海军封锁古巴港口。诺希维尔号军舰捕获到一艘西班牙商船。4月24日,西班牙向美国宣战,美国于次日宣战。
战争在古巴、波多黎各和菲律宾同时进行。开战后,美海军部副部长西奥多·罗斯福辞去职位,组建志愿军第一志愿骑兵团前往参战。
在古巴,美军打着“帮助古巴独立”的旗号计划从圣迭戈港登陆。但西班牙军在此地部署了严密的防线,使美军无法登陆,只好封锁港口。6月10日,美军陆战队从关塔那摩湾强行登陆,但遭到西班牙军队的顽强阻击。6月底,防线被突破,美军成功登陆。西奥多·罗斯福率美国第一志愿骑兵团(即;“莽骑兵”)节节获胜,击败了西班牙在古巴的陆军一部。7月1日,美军攻占圣迭戈东北部和东部的据点埃尔卡纳和圣胡安,对圣迭戈港形成包围之势,从而让战争的陆上形势对美国有利。7月3日,西班牙海军上将帕斯夸尔·塞韦拉指挥的加勒比海舰队试图冲破美军的封锁,但在古巴圣迭戈海战中被美军彻底摧毁。7月17日,圣迭戈市向谢夫特将军投降。
在菲律宾,美国海军准将乔治·杜威的舰队在马尼拉湾海战中胜利,马尼拉港被封锁,西班牙失去在太平洋的制海权。8月13日,美军在菲律宾革命党人的配合下占领菲律宾马尼拉。同时,从香港出发的美国舰队歼灭了驻守在菲律宾马尼拉港的西班牙舰队。
结果
[编辑]出于在古巴和菲律宾的失利,和其于两地舰队的毁灭,西班牙求和并开始展开谈判。在英国领事爱德华·罗森·沃克因病去世后,美国海军上将乔治·杜威请求比利时领事爱德华·安德烈代表美国与西班牙谈判。[15]
在美国与西班牙于1898年8月12日签订停火协议后,双方停止交战。[16] 经过长达两个月的僵局谈判,正式的和约于1898年12月10日在法国巴黎签订,[17] 并于1899年2月6日得到美国参议院的核准。
美国在条约中获得西班牙的殖民地菲律宾和波多黎各,古巴则成为了美国保护国。[17] 该条约于1899年4月11日开始对古巴具有强制力,而古巴当时仅能作为观察员参加和平会议。古巴自1898年6月17日开始被美国控制,并置于美国军事政府的管辖下。古巴在军事政府宣布停止管辖后于1902年5月20日独立。但美国对新政权提出诸多限制,包括禁止与其他国家结盟和保留合法介入的权力。美国签订事实永久管辖对关塔那摩湾海军基地的租约。[18][19][20]
引注
[编辑]注脚
[编辑]- ^ Louis A. Pérez, The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography, UNC Press Books, 1998 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0807847428, (原始内容存档于2016-04-24)
- ^ Benjamin R. Beede, The War of 1898, and US interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1994 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0824056247, (原始内容存档于2016-05-27)
- ^ Virginia Marie Bouvier, Whose America?: the war of 1898 and the battles to define the nation, Praeger, 2001 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0275967949, (原始内容存档于2016-05-14)
- ^ Thomas David Schoonover; Walter LaFeber, Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization, University Press of Kentucky, 2005 [2015-10-31], ISBN 978-0813191225, (原始内容存档于2016-05-07)
- ^ Dyal, Carpenter & Thomas 1996,第21-22页.
- ^ Clodfelter 2017,第256页.
- ^ Clodfelter 2017,第308页.
- ^ Karnow 1990,第115页
- ^ Dyal, Carpenter & Thomas 1996,第20页.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Clodfelter 2017,第255页.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 "America's Wars: Factsheet." 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期July 20, 2017,. US Department of Veteran Affairs. Office of Public Affairs. Washington DC. Published April 2017.
- ^ Marsh, Alan. "POWs in American History: A Synoposis" 互联网档案馆的存档,存档日期August 6, 2017,.. National Park Service. 1998.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Keenan 2001,第70页.
- ^ Tucker 2009,第105页.
- ^ Wolff 1961,第175页
- ^ Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries, Washington, DC, 1898-08-12 [2007-10-17], (原始内容存档于2007-10-12)
- ^ 17.0 17.1 Treaty of Paris, 1898. [2009-12-31]. (原始内容存档于2015-05-23).
- ^ Congress, United States. Reports and Documents 2. 1947: 7 [2023-02-15]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-23) –通过Google Books (英语).
- ^ Congress, United States. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 88th Congress, first session 109. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1963: 12259 [1873] [2023-02-15]. (原始内容存档于2023-09-23) (英语).
- ^ Strauss, Michael J. The Leasing of Guantanamo Bay. ABC-CLIO. 2009-05-14: 96–107, 174 [2023-02-15]. ISBN 978-0-313-37783-9. (原始内容存档于2023-09-23) (英语).
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