國家地區代碼
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國家象徵 |
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各國相關 |
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查 · 論 · 編 |
國家地區代碼或稱國家地區編碼(英語:country codes),簡稱國碼[1],是用來標誌國家的一組縮寫或符號[2],在國家地區代碼的標準化[3]及實務上,有多種國際公認的國家和其領土代碼 [4][5]。
國家地區代碼通常由字母或數字組成的短字串[6],是建立高素質的元資料[3]、處理地理空間資訊及製圖[6][7]、 網際網路域名通訊及治理[8][9]、企業[10][11]及國際貨物進出口數據管理[10]的依據。
常見國家地區代碼
[編輯]實務上,有多種國際公認的國家和其領土代碼 [4][5],如國際標準化組織訂立的ISO 3166-1、美國國家地理空間情報局權威維護的FIPS國碼列表、頂級域中的國家或地區域名列表等等。
圖書館學及資訊科學
[編輯]在電子檔案管理基礎[1]及圖書館學及資訊科學方面,如機讀編目格式標準,亦有國碼欄位,其值必須唯一且採用ISO 3166-1的「國名編碼表」[1][12]。
地理信息系統
[編輯]在地理信息和地理信息系統(英語:GIS)領域,國家地區代碼為使用字母數字代碼來進行地理空間數據處理的例子之一[6]。在國際地理信息標準中,國家地區代碼通常是2至3碼,為資料庫查表求找國家全名等資料的依據[7]。自由軟件的地理信息系統軟件QGIS教程中有示範如何便用國家地區代碼來進行資料查找及整合。[13]
國家地區代碼頂級域
[編輯]國家和地區頂級域名[14]又譯頂級國碼網域名稱[15]用兩字母的國家或地區名縮寫代稱的頂級域[9][14],其域名的指定及分配,政治因素考量凌駕在技術和商業因素之上[16]。
ICANN及其前身組織IANN一直試圖避免但本質上無法避免的「什麼是一個國家」問題,說明了政治如何隱含在網際網路域名例子,如2000年3月ICANN設立了.ps域名代表巴勒斯坦民族權力機構,2003年中國向ICANN及美國提問為什麼存有台灣域名(.tw),這有似有合理化台灣為獨立國家,而中國視其為一省[8]。
在網際網路發展初展,約翰·普斯特爾及其同僚決定使用國際標準化組織訂立的二碼國碼,而其中許多國碼並非有主權政府或國家[17]如香港[8]。學者John Mathiason認為他們使用國際標準化組織訂立的標準這樣做造就了兩個政治錯誤,其一是使用的國際標準化組織列表[18]是「政治不正確」(英語:not politically correct)的,在中國域名(.cn)[19]及香港域名(.hk)[20]之外,學者John Mathiason認為IANN早期做的第二個政治錯誤是,當IANA設立國家地區代碼時沒有任何程序來決定哪些組織具有域名提供註冊服務的官方權威,而一些域名因其在英語的意義有價值如可用做電視節目的.tv域名(圖瓦盧,英語:Tuvalu)等等,而因此許多國家沒有其國家的登記單位,讓私人獲取了分配國家地區代碼域名的權威。[來源請求]
列表
[編輯]美國中央情報局出版的調查報告《世界概況》附錄中有整合摘要國家數據代碼交叉引用表如下:[21]
政治實體 | GEC代碼[註 1] | ISO 3166-1 二位字母代碼 |
ISO 3166-1 三位字母代碼 |
ISO 3166-1 三位數字代碼 |
STANAG 1059 Stanag標準化國碼 |
網際網路頂級域 | 註說 |
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AF | AF | AFG | 004 | AFG | .af | |
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AL | AL | ALB | 008 | ALB | .al | |
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AG | DZ | DZA | 012 | DZA | .dz | |
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AQ | AS | ASM | 016 | ASM | .as | |
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AN | AD | AND | 020 | AND | .ad | |
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AO | AO | AGO | 024 | AGO | .ao | |
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AV | AI | AIA | 660 | AIA | .ai | |
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AY | AQ | ATA | 010 | ATA | .aq | ISO定義為位於南緯60°之南 |
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AC | AG | ATG | 028 | ATG | .ag | |
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AR | AR | ARG | 032 | ARG | .ar | |
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AM | AM | ARM | 051 | ARM | .am | |
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AA | AW | ABW | 533 | ABW | .aw | |
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AS | AU | AUS | 036 | AUS | .au | ISO定義包括阿什莫爾和卡捷島,珊瑚海群島 |
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AU | AT | AUT | 040 | AUT | .at | |
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AJ | AZ | AZE | 031 | AZE | .az | |
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BF | BS | BHS | 044 | BHS | .bs | |
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BA | BH | BHR | 048 | BHR | .bh | |
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BG | BD | BGD | 050 | BGD | .bd | |
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BB | BB | BRB | 052 | BRB | .bb | |
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BO | BY | BLR | 112 | BLR | .by | |
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BE | BE | BEL | 056 | BEL | .be | |
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BH | BZ | BLZ | 084 | BLZ | .bz | |
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BN | BJ | BEN | 204 | BEN | .bj | |
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BD | BM | BMU | 060 | BMU | .bm | |
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BT | BT | BTN | 064 | BTN | .bt | |
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BL | BO | BOL | 068 | BOL | .bo | |
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BK | BA | BIH | 070 | BIH | .ba | |
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BC | BW | BWA | 072 | BWA | .bw | |
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BV | BV | BVT | 074 | BVT | .bv | |
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BR | BR | BRA | 076 | BRA | .br | |
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IO | IO | IOT | 086 | IOT | .io | |
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VI | VG | VGB | 092 | VGB | .vg | |
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BX | BN | BRN | 096 | BRN | .bn | |
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BU | BG | BGR | 100 | BGR | .bg | |
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UV | BF | BFA | 854 | BFA | .bf | |
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BM | MM | MMR | 104 | MMR | .mm | 國際標準化組織採用名稱為英語:Myanmar。 |
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BY | BI | BDI | 108 | BDI | .bi | |
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CV | CV | CPV | 132 | CPV | .cv | |
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CB | KH | KHM | 116 | KHM | .kh | |
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CM | CM | CMR | 120 | CMR | .cm | |
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CA | CA | CAN | 124 | CAN | .ca | |
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CJ | KY | CYM | 136 | CYM | .ky | |
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CT | CF | CAF | 140 | CAF | .cf | |
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CD | TD | TCD | 148 | TCD | .td | |
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CI | CL | CHL | 152 | CHL | .cl | |
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CH | CN | CHN | 156 | CHN | .cn | |
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KT | CX | CXR | 162 | CXR | .cx | |
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CK | CC | CCK | 166 | AUS | .cc | |
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CO | CO | COL | 170 | COL | .co | |
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CN | KM | COM | 174 | COM | .km | |
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CG | CD | COD | 180 | COD | .cd | 參見![]() |
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CF | CG | COG | 178 | COG | .cg | |
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CW | CK | COK | 184 | COK | .ck | |
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CS | CR | CRI | 188 | CRI | .cr | |
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IV | CI | CIV | 384 | CIV | .ci | |
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HR | HR | HRV | 191 | HRV | .hr | |
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CU | CU | CUB | 192 | CUB | .cu | |
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UC | CW | CUW | 531 | 不適用 | .cw | |
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CY | CY | CYP | 196 | CYP | .cy | |
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EZ | CZ | CZE | 203 | CZE | .cz | |
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DA | DK | DNK | 208 | DNK | .dk | |
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DJ | DJ | DJI | 262 | DJI | .dj | |
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DO | DM | DMA | 212 | DMA | .dm | |
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DR | DO | DOM | 214 | DOM | .do | |
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EC | EC | ECU | 218 | ECU | .ec | |
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EG | EG | EGY | 818 | EGY | .eg | |
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ES | SV | SLV | 222 | SLV | .sv | |
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EK | GQ | GNQ | 226 | GNQ | .gq | |
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ER | ER | ERI | 232 | ERI | .er | |
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EN | EE | EST | 233 | EST | .ee | |
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ET | ET | ETH | 231 | ETH | .et | |
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FK | FK | FLK | 238 | FLK | .fk | |
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FO | FO | FRO | 234 | FRO | .fo | |
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FJ | FJ | FJI | 242 | FJI | .fj | |
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FI | FI | FIN | 246 | FIN | .fi | |
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FR | FR | FRA | 250 | FRA | .fr | ISO定義包括法國本土以及海外領土 |
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FX | FX | FXX | 249 | 不適用 | 不適用 | ISO定義限法國本土 |
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FG | GF | GUF | 254 | GUF | .gf | |
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FP | PF | PYF | 258 | PYF | .pf | |
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FS | TF | ATF | 260 | ATF | .tf | |
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GB | GA | GAB | 266 | GAB | .ga | |
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GA | GM | GMB | 270 | GMB | .gm | |
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GZ | PS | PSE | 275 | PSE | .ps | |
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GG | GE | GEO | 268 | GEO | .ge | |
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GM | DE | DEU | 276 | DEU | .de | |
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GH | GH | GHA | 288 | GHA | .gh | |
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GI | GI | GIB | 292 | GIB | .gi | |
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GR | GR | GRC | 300 | GRC | .gr | |
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GL | GL | GRL | 304 | GRL | .gl | |
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GJ | GD | GRD | 308 | GRD | .gd | |
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GP | GP | GLP | 312 | GLP | .gp | |
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GQ | GU | GUM | 316 | GUM | .gu | |
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GT | GT | GTM | 320 | GTM | .gt | |
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GK | GG | GGY | 831 | 不適用 | .gg | |
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GV | GN | GIN | 324 | GIN | .gn | |
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PU | GW | GNB | 624 | GNB | .gw | |
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GY | GY | GUY | 328 | GUY | .gy | |
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HA | HT | HTI | 332 | HTI | .ht | |
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HM | HM | HMD | 334 | HMD | .hm | |
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VT | VA | VAT | 336 | VAT | .va | |
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HO | HN | HND | 340 | HND | .hn | |
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HK | HK | HKG | 344 | HKG | .hk | |
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HU | HU | HUN | 348 | HUN | .hu | |
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IC | IS | ISL | 352 | ISL | .is | |
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IN | IN | IND | 356 | IND | .in | |
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ID | ID | IDN | 360 | IDN | .id | |
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IR | IR | IRN | 364 | IRN | .ir | |
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IZ | IQ | IRQ | 368 | IRQ | .iq | |
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EI | IE | IRL | 372 | IRL | .ie | |
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IM | IM | IMN | 833 | 不適用 | .im | |
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IS | IL | ISR | 376 | ISR | .il | |
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IT | IT | ITA | 380 | ITA | .it | |
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JM | JM | JAM | 388 | JAM | .jm | |
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JA | JP | JPN | 392 | JPN | .jp | |
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JE | JE | JEY | 832 | 不適用 | .je | |
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JO | JO | JOR | 400 | JOR | .jo | |
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KZ | KZ | KAZ | 398 | KAZ | .kz | |
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KE | KE | KEN | 404 | KEN | .ke | |
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KR | KI | KIR | 296 | KIR | .ki | |
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KN | KP | PRK | 408 | PRK | .kp | |
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KS | KR | KOR | 410 | KOR | .kr | |
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KV | XK | XKS | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | XK和XKS為ISO 3166用戶分配代碼, ISO 3166無代碼 |
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KU | KW | KWT | 414 | KWT | .kw | |
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KG | KG | KGZ | 417 | KGZ | .kg | |
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LA | LA | LAO | 418 | LAO | .la | |
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LG | LV | LVA | 428 | LVA | .lv | |
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LE | LB | LBN | 422 | LBN | .lb | |
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LT | LS | LSO | 426 | LSO | .ls | |
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LI | LR | LBR | 430 | LBR | .lr | |
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LY | LY | LBY | 434 | LBY | .ly | |
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LS | LI | LIE | 438 | LIE | .li | |
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LH | LT | LTU | 440 | LTU | .lt | |
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LU | LU | LUX | 442 | LUX | .lu | |
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MC | MO | MAC | 446 | MAC | .mo | |
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MK | MK | MKD | 807 | FYR | .mk | ISO名稱前南斯拉夫馬其頓共和國 |
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MA | MG | MDG | 450 | MDG | .mg | |
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MI | MW | MWI | 454 | MWI | .mw | |
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MY | MY | MYS | 458 | MYS | .my | |
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MV | MV | MDV | 462 | MDV | .mv | |
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ML | ML | MLI | 466 | MLI | .ml | |
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MT | MT | MLT | 470 | MLT | .mt | |
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RM | MH | MHL | 584 | MHL | .mh | |
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MB | MQ | MTQ | 474 | MTQ | .mq | |
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MR | MR | MRT | 478 | MRT | .mr | |
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MP | MU | MUS | 480 | MUS | .mu | |
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MF | YT | MYT | 175 | FRA | .yt | |
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MX | MX | MEX | 484 | MEX | .mx | |
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FM | FM | FSM | 583 | FSM | .fm | |
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MD | MD | MDA | 498 | MDA | .md | |
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MN | MC | MCO | 492 | MCO | .mc | |
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MG | MN | MNG | 496 | MNG | .mn | |
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MJ | ME | MNE | 499 | MNE | .me | |
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MH | MS | MSR | 500 | MSR | .ms | |
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MO | MA | MAR | 504 | MAR | .ma | |
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MZ | MZ | MOZ | 508 | MOZ | .mz | |
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WA | NA | NAM | 516 | NAM | .na | |
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NR | NR | NRU | 520 | NRU | .nr | |
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NP | NP | NPL | 524 | NPL | .np | |
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NL | NL | NLD | 528 | NLD | .nl | |
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NT | AN | ANT | 不適用 | ANT | .an | 2010年10月其解體, ISO 2010年12月刪除其代碼 |
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NC | NC | NCL | 540 | NCL | .nc | |
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NZ | NZ | NZL | 554 | NZL | .nz | |
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NU | NI | NIC | 558 | NIC | .ni | |
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NG | NE | NER | 562 | NER | .ne | |
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NI | NG | NGA | 566 | NGA | .ng | |
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NE | NU | NIU | 570 | NIU | .nu | |
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NF | NF | NFK | 574 | NFK | .nf | |
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CQ | MP | MNP | 580 | MNP | .mp | |
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NO | NO | NOR | 578 | NOR | .no | |
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MU | OM | OMN | 512 | OMN | .om | |
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PK | PK | PAK | 586 | PAK | .pk | |
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PS | PW | PLW | 585 | PLW | .pw | |
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PM | PA | PAN | 591 | PAN | .pa | |
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PP | PG | PNG | 598 | PNG | .pg | |
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PA | PY | PRY | 600 | PRY | .py | |
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PE | PE | PER | 604 | PER | .pe | |
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RP | PH | PHL | 608 | PHL | .ph | |
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PC | PN | PCN | 612 | PCN | .pn | |
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PL | PL | POL | 616 | POL | .pl | |
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PO | PT | PRT | 620 | PRT | .pt | |
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RQ | PR | PRI | 630 | PRI | .pr | |
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QA | QA | QAT | 634 | QAT | .qa | |
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RE | RE | REU | 638 | REU | .re | |
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RO | RO | ROU | 642 | ROU | .ro | |
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TW | TW | TWN | 158 | TWN | .tw | 在ISO 3166中,國際標準化組織採用名稱為「中國臺灣省」(英語:Taiwan, Province of China) |
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RS | RU | RUS | 643 | RUS | .ru | |
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RW | RW | RWA | 646 | RWA | .rw | |
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TB | BL | BLM | 652 | 不適用 | .bl | 或可使用國家地區代碼頂級域.fr和.gp |
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SH | SH | SHN | 654 | SHN | .sh | 包括聖赫勒拿島,阿森松島和特里斯坦 - 達庫尼亞群島 |
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SC | KN | KNA | 659 | KNA | .kn | |
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ST | LC | LCA | 662 | LCA | .lc | |
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RN | MF | MAF | 663 | 不適用 | .mf | 或可使用國家地區代碼頂級域.fr和.gp |
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VC | VC | VCT | 670 | VCT | .vc | |
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WS | WS | WSM | 882 | WSM | .ws | |
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SM | SM | SMR | 674 | SMR | .sm | |
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TP | ST | STP | 678 | STP | .st | |
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SA | SA | SAU | 682 | SAU | .sa | |
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SG | SN | SEN | 686 | SEN | .sn | |
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RI | RS | SRB | 688 | SRB | .rs | |
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SE | SC | SYC | 690 | SYC | .sc | |
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SL | SL | SLE | 694 | SLE | .sl | |
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SN | SG | SGP | 702 | SGP | .sg | |
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NN | SX | SXM | 534 | 不適用 | .sx | |
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LO | SK | SVK | 703 | SVK | .sk | |
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SI | SI | SVN | 705 | SVN | .si | |
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BP | SB | SLB | 090 | SLB | .sb | |
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SO | SO | SOM | 706 | SOM | .so | |
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SF | ZA | ZAF | 710 | ZAF | .za | |
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SX | GS | SGS | 239 | SGS | .gs | |
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OD | SS | SSD | 728 | SSD | .ss | |
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SP | ES | ESP | 724 | ESP | .es | |
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CE | LK | LKA | 144 | LKA | .lk | |
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SU | SD | SDN | 729 | SDN | .sd | |
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NS | SR | SUR | 740 | SUR | .sr | |
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SB | PM | SPM | 666 | SPM | .pm | |
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WZ | SZ | SWZ | 748 | SWZ | .sz | |
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SW | SE | SWE | 752 | SWE | .se | |
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SZ | CH | CHE | 756 | CHE | .ch | |
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SY | SY | SYR | 760 | SYR | .sy | |
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TI | TJ | TJK | 762 | TJK | .tj | |
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TZ | TZ | TZA | 834 | TZA | .tz | |
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TH | TH | THA | 764 | THA | .th | |
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TT | TL | TLS | 626 | TLS | .tl | |
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TO | TG | TGO | 768 | TGO | .tg | |
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TL | TK | TKL | 772 | TKL | .tk | |
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TN | TO | TON | 776 | TON | .to | |
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TD | TT | TTO | 780 | TTO | .tt | |
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TS | TN | TUN | 788 | TUN | .tn | |
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TU | TR | TUR | 792 | TUR | .tr | |
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TX | TM | TKM | 795 | TKM | .tm | |
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TK | TC | TCA | 796 | TCA | .tc | |
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TV | TV | TUV | 798 | TUV | .tv | |
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UG | UG | UGA | 800 | UGA | .ug | |
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UP | UA | UKR | 804 | UKR | .ua | |
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AE | AE | ARE | 784 | ARE | .ae | |
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UK | GB | GBR | 826 | GBR | .uk | 歐盟的內部通信建議使用UK來代替ISO 3166-2英國代碼GB |
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US | US | USA | 840 | USA | .us | |
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UM | UM | UMI | 581 | 不適用 | .um | |
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UY | UY | URY | 858 | URY | .uy | |
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UZ | UZ | UZB | 860 | UZB | .uz | |
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NH | VU | VUT | 548 | VUT | .vu | |
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VE | VE | VEN | 862 | VEN | .ve | |
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VM | VN | VNM | 704 | VNM | .vn | |
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VQ | VI | VIR | 850 | VIR | .vi | |
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WF | WF | WLF | 876 | WLF | .wf | |
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WE | PS | PSE | 275 | PSE | .ps | |
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WI | EH | ESH | 732 | ESH | .eh | ISO名稱西撒哈拉 |
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UN | UN | UNO | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | ISO 3166-1代碼是特別保留 |
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EU | EU | EUE | 不適用 | 不適用 | .eu | ISO 3166-1代碼是特別保留 |
非盟 | AU | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | |
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ASEAN | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | 不適用 | |
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YM | YE | YEM | 887 | YEM | .ye | |
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ZA | ZA | ZAI | 不適用 | ZAI | 不適用 | 參見![]() |
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ZA | ZM | ZMB | 894 | ZMB | .zm | |
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ZI | ZW | ZWE | 716 | ZWE | .zw | |
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RH | RO | RHO | 不適用 | RHO | 不適用 | 分拆為![]() ![]() ![]() |
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WI | WI | WIF | 不適用 | WIF | 不適用 | |
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EN | EN | EUN | 不適用 | EUN | 不適用 | |
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AN | AZ | ANZ | 不適用 | ANZ | 不適用 | |
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YU | YG | YUG | 不適用 | YUG | 不適用 | |
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UR | UR | URS | 不適用 | URS | 不適用 | ![]() |
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DA | DH | DAH | 不適用 | DAH | 不適用 | |
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VO | VL | VOL | 不適用 | VOL | 不適用 | |
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BO | BO | BOH | 不適用 | BOH | 不適用 | |
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TC | TC | TCH | 不適用 | TCH | 不適用 | |
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UA | UA | UAR | 不適用 | UAR | 不適用 | |
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SC | SG | SCG | 不適用 | SCG | 不適用 |
參見
[編輯]其他國家地區代碼
[編輯]- 國際奧委會國家或地區編碼列表:國際奧林匹克委員會所使用的三位字母代碼
- 國際足聯國家代碼列表:國際足球協會所使用的三位字母代碼
- 主權國家列表
其他代碼
[編輯]注釋
[編輯]- ^ 即GEOPOLITICAL ENTITIES and CODES,原FIPS PUB 10-4代碼,現由美國國家地理空間情報局維護。
參考文獻
[編輯]- ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 王萍; 宋雪雁. 电子档案管理基础. 清華大學出版社. 2006: 111, 164, 165, 235 [31 January 2014]. ISBN 978-7-302-12454-2. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (中文(中國大陸)).
國碼( countrycode)
- ^ R. R. K. Hartmann; Gregory James. Dictionary of Lexicography. Routledge. 4 January 2002: 31 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-134-76829-5. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
An abbreviation or symbol used to label the country associated with a particular word, phrase or term.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Cliff Wootton. Developing Quality Metadata: Building Innovative Tools and Workflow Solutions. Taylor & Francis. 2007: 139– [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-240-80869-7. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
geo-codes: Standardized country codes
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Gwillim Law. Administrative subdivisions of countries: a comprehensive world reference, 1900 through 1998. McFarland & Company Incorporated Pub. 1999 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-7864-0729-3. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-12) (英語).
See also Country Codes
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Central Intelligence Agency. Appendix D: Cross-Reference List of Country Data Codes. 国家数据代码交叉引用表. The CIA World Factbook 2012. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. 2011: 3291– [2014-01-29]. ISBN 978-1-61608-332-8. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
- ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Peter Folger. Geospatial Information and Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Current Issues and Future Challenges. DIANE Publishing. November 2010: 3– [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-4379-1947-9. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
Geocoding: assignment of alphanumeric codes or coordinates to geographically referenced data. Examples include the two-letter country codes, or the coordinates of a residence computed from its address. (Geospatial and GIS Terminology)
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Kelly Chan. DIGEST A Primer for the International GIS Standard. CRC Press. 25 June 1998: 34 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-56670-241-6. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
For example, a column of country codes might refer to a country code lookup table for an explanation or the compete country name based on a 2- or 3-charcter code.
- ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 United Nations ICT Task Force. Internet Governance: A Grand Collaboration : an Edited Collection of Papers Contributed to the United Nations ICT Task Force Global Forum on Internet Governance, New York, March 25-26, 2004. United Nations Publications. 2004: 275 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-92-1-104534-5. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
National sovereignty over information infrastructure ccTLDs: Who is a country? ICANN and its predecessor organization have always sought to avoid the issue of what is a state, yet is inherently unable to skirt it. For instance, in 2003 Chinese authorities raised the issue with US and ICANN officials of why .tw existed since it seemed to legitimize the island as an independent nation, which China regards as a province. Though China stopped short of asking its removal (there are a number of non-national territories in the ISO 3166 list, including .hk for Hong Kong), the incident is indicative of the offline politics that can easily enter domain name policy discussions. Secondly, in March 2000, ICANN established .ps to represent the Palestinian Authority, another example of how politics is implicit in Internet addressing.
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Yu-Che Chen; Pin-Yu Chu. Electronic Governance and Cross-Boundary Collaboration: Innovations and Advancing Tools. Idea Group Inc (IGI). 30 April 2011: 31– [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-60960-753-1. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
Naming- This category covers basic primitives for defining consistent names for resrouces, like URI, URL, XML Namespaces, ISO 3166 (country codes), and ISO 8601 (date and time representations)
- ^ 10.0 10.1 Jeff Voivoda. Data Analysis and Harmonization: A Simple Guide. iUniverse. 24 March 2011: 58 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-4502-9825-4. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
- ^ James Bean. Engineering Global E-Commerce Sites: A Guide to Data Capture, Content, and Transactions. Morgan Kaufmann. 22 May 2003: 190 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-08-050567-1. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
- ^ 後設資料工作組 譯,檔案編碼描述格式 Encoded Archival Description, EAD (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- ^ Performing Table Joins. [2014-01-29]. (原始內容存檔於2014-02-02).
- ^ 14.0 14.1 蘭少華; 楊余旺; 呂建勇. TCP/IP网络与协议. 清華大學出版社. 2006: 148 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-7-302-11840-4. (原始內容存檔於2014-09-20) (中文(中國大陸)).
- ^ 見TWNIC新聞稿譯名ICANN正式通過「.台灣」及「.台灣」頂級國碼網域名稱申請案 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)(英語:ccTLD)
- ^ Milton Mueller. Ruling the Root: Internet Governance and the Taming of Cyberspace. MIT Press. 2004: 244 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-262-26379-5. (原始內容存檔於2014-09-20) (英語).
But political factors have overridden technical and business facts in this case. The GAC has lobbied to make sure that ccTLD delegations are exclusive by warning ICANN not to delegate any new TLDs with the names of countries or that use the three-letter country codes. The director-general of the European Commission, Robert Verrue, expressed support for the idea of giving governments the opportunity to register or assign in advance the two-letter and three-letter ISO country codes in the new TLDs. In its second process WIPO proposed to exclude all two-letter country codes from the second level of all new generic TLDs.
- ^ John Mathiason. Chapter 6 The ICANN experiment. Internet Governance: The New Frontier of Global Institutions. Routledge. 18 August 2008: 88–89 [29 January 2014]. ISBN 978-1-135-97666-8. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27) (英語).
In the early, innocent days of the Internet, Jon Postel and his colleagues determined to use the ISO two-letter designation of countries. Many of the country-code names were not sovereign governments. In doing so, they made two political errors. First, the list was not politically correct since it included, in addition to China (.cn) and Hong Kong (.hk), Taiwan Province of China (.tw). Since the status of Taiwan (especially whether it sould be considered independent) has yet to be resovled internationally, once ICANN took over the IANA functions, this had the effect of allowing Taiwan to participate in ICANN. And Taiwan does participate in GAC meetings, as did China, one of the few places where both would be represented. The GAC by-laws allow for this by permitting membership of "distinct economies as recognised in international fora." This avoids a judgement about the status of Taiwan. ... Second, when IANA set up the country-level codes there was no procedure for determining, on the basis of government authority who was qualified to provide registry services for the domain. Some of the two-letter domains had a value because of their meaning in English. For example, .tv (Tuvalu) could be used by television programs ... and .fm (Federation of Micronesia) could be used by radio stations. Many countries did not have national registries so private individuals were given the authority to allocate domain names to some country-code domains.
- ^ ISO 3166-1列表. [2014-01-31]. (原始內容存檔於2014-03-10).
- ^ Delegation Record for .中國. [2014-01-31]. (原始內容存檔於2014-01-27).
- ^ Delegation Record for .香港. [2014-01-31]. (原始內容存檔於2011-05-25).
- ^ CIA World Factbook,APPENDIX D: CROSS-REFERENCE LIST OF COUNTRY DATA CODES (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)。