越南文字历史
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今日越南语口语和书面语使用的是以拉丁字母为基础的越南语字母，词汇中有越南本地词、汉越词、喃字，统称为“汉喃”，此外还有来自欧洲语言的音译词。越南文学作品是用喃字，在此之前是汉字书写的。
京族祖先是说原始南亚语的人群，可能可以追溯回东山文化。现代语言学家描述说，越南语已经失去了古越南语所具有的一些原始南亚语语音、形态特征。这在约一千年前越南语与越-芒语的分离时显现了端倪。[1][2][3]自公元前111年直至20世纪，越南文学都是用Chữ Hán／𡨸汉（汉字）书写的文言文（越南语：cổ văn／古文、văn ngôn／文言或Hán văn／漢文），10-20世纪期间也使用chữ Nôm／喃字（即改编为适应越南语的汉字）。[4]:5[5]
喃字在10世纪得到广泛传播，早在8世纪就开始在散文小说和诗歌中使用，但从未获得正式地位。喃字系统用汉字书写汉越词并使用一套经过改编的字符搭配系统，基于与中古汉语的近音字来转写越南本地词。[6]这两种文字同时存在，直到法属印度支那时期，基于拉丁字母的国语字才逐渐成为当代文学的书面媒介。[7]过去，梵文、印度语言也对越南文学做出了贡献，它们或是来自大乘佛教，或是来自占婆和高棉帝国的历史影响。
术语
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越南语中汉字依据作用和所表示词汇的来源可以分为以下几类：
- Hán tự／漢字：即“汉字”。
- Chữ Hán／𡨸漢：即“汉字”，与上一条同义，不同之处在于上一条完全为音译词。
- Hán văn／漢文：即“文言文”[8]:228[9]:281, 900。
- Chữ Nho／𡨸儒。[10]:16[8]:141, 228[9]:281
越南语chữ／𡨸（字）一词来自中古汉语“字”。[11]:47
汉越词（越南语：từ Hán Việt／詞漢越）指从汉语借入越南语的词，一般是依据借入时的古汉语语音。就句法和词汇而言，这种汉越词实际上和北京话没什么不同，就像中世纪的英国拉丁语与罗马拉丁语的关系一样。它的主要影响来自于越南文言文。[12]
喃字（越南语：Chữ Nôm／𡨸喃）指古代越南语白话的转写系统，用原来的汉字和当地创造的汉字中本没有的喃字混合书写，以汉字读音表示越南语本土词音、词义。[13][14]喃字包含的字符多达3.7万个，许多字符在构成上有任意性，在发音上也不一致。[15]:525[16]
汉喃（越南语：Hán Nôm／漢喃）可以指同时使用汉字和喃字的书写方法，如河内汉喃研究院的研究对象，或指汉字与喃字混合书写的文本，或一些汉字文本与喃字间的平行翻译。[17]汉字与喃字间的正字法有大量重叠，许多字在汉字和汉字中有相同的读法。[18]把喃字看成汉字适应越南语的结果或许是最简单的做法。国语字（chữ quốc ngữ／𡨸國語）指基于拉丁字母的越南语文字。
历史
[编辑]汉字
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汉字，越南语：Hán tự／漢字、Chữ Hán、Chữ Nho／𡨸儒，指普通话时常用Chữ Hoa或Tiếng Hoa，指汉语整体时常用Tiếng Tàu。公元前1千纪末，中国南方百越的精英就可能已经采用了一种基于汉字的方式记录自己语言中的词汇。[19]自公元前111年至公元905年受中国统治的漫长时间段里，汉字一直用作该地区的官方文字。用汉字书写的当地文本可能也包括一些经过改编的字，以表示古越南语词汇，通常是人名或地名。[19]据部分学者的说法，汉字的使用可能始自士燮（137–226），也有许多人反对。[19]第一篇完全由汉字写就的越南语白话文章出自晚唐廖有方之手。[20]:568
这些文学作品起初与中国、朝鲜或日本同时代的文言文没有区别。如僧人匡越的《南国山河》及许多儒、道、佛教的经文。[5][21][22][23]
到1174年，汉字已成为越南宫廷的官方文字，主要用于行政管理和文人大夫间，并一直发挥这一作用，直到19世纪中叶法国殖民统治时期，法国的教育系统改用音译的国语字推广教育。[24]:102
越南早期铭文列表
[编辑]| 铭文 | 时代 | 发现地 | 发现年 | 描述 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 未知 | 314/450（东晋或刘宋） | 北宁省顺成县青姜社青怀村 21°03′00″N 106°04′59″E / 21.050°N 106.083°E
|
2013 | 有两处篆书汉字可辨。1967年毁于越南战争滚雷行动。[25][26] |
大隋九真郡宝安道场之碑文
|
618[27]:51（隋） | 清化市东山县19°48′27″N 105°46′35″E / 19.80750°N 105.77639°E | 1960 | 赞扬隋朝官员“黎督军”与唐军作战的功绩。[28]:108有957字，246字已磨失难辨。 |
青枚钟铭文,_Thanh_Mai_pagoda,_Ha_Tay_province,_cast_in_798_AD,_bronze_-_National_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Hanoi,_Vietnam_-_DSC05548.JPG)
|
798[27]:51（唐） | 河内青威县青枚社 20°51′13″N 105°46′06″E / 20.853715°N 105.768395°E |
1986 | 记录了当地佛教组织及其243名成员：135名女性，108名男性。显示了安南当地妇女在宗教生活中的崇高地位。[28]:109–110[29]:202, 204, 208–210 |
后古典–大越早期（900–1230）
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汉越音
[编辑]越南汉字文本被称作“Hán văn／漢文”，与日语“漢文”、朝鲜语“한문/漢文”异曲同工。[38][39]这与汉越词在越南语白话中的扩张同步，[40]并创造出一种独特的域外方音。[41]蒲立本是第一批积极采用汉越音构拟古汉语读音的语言学家之一。[42]
喃字
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13世纪开始，汉字的主导地位开始受到喃字挑战。喃字是在汉字基础上创建的一套用于转写越南本土词汇的书写系统，这些文字甚至比汉字本身更难。喃字借用了汉字的语音和语义信息来造字。[24]:102-103
虽然是为越南本土文字设计的，但喃字也对使用者对汉字的了解提出了相当高的要求，因此喃字主要用于文化精英的文学作品（如阮攸、胡春香的诗作），而几乎所有其他官方文献在20世纪之前仍用文言文书写。[43][44]
虽然在技术上与汉字不大相同，把喃字看成汉字适应越南语的结果或许是最简单的做法。原本就有的汉字与越南人自造的汉字统称为“汉喃”。然而，这种新文字虽然使越南语的大众传播和记录成为可能，拉丁文字似乎才是更受欢迎的记录越南语白话的方法。
国音新字
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Quốc Âm Tân Tự／國音新字是19世纪中期出现的一种越南文字系统。汉喃研究院存有两份以此写就的文件（各四页）：一份较老的佚名手稿，及一份较新的名为“国音新字”的副本。文件中没有任何直接表明写作年代的信息。基于序言中“华”字最后一笔因避讳省略，可推测其写于绍治年间（1841-1847）（绍治帝之母名为“胡氏华”）。序末跋曰“五星聚斗南城居士阮子书”。从序中可知，国音新字的发明者是南定市俗家，姓阮，号五星聚斗。[46]
国音新字是一种由汉喃字笔画组成的拼音文字（类似于日语片假名或汉语注音字母），有22个cán tự／幹字和110个chi tự／枝字，干字表示声母，枝字表示韵母。其中枝字由干字字形派生而来，每个干字有5个派生枝字。
每个枝字和干字自身除了都可以表示一个完整的音节外，也用于左右互相拼合表示其他的音节。其中，每个干字都可以表示一个以“ông”为韵母的音节（在原文中以汉字或喃字表示其读音，包括记录/ʔ/声母的干字“ông”。），而枝字则以5个为一组，表示声母相同而韵母不同的音节。例如，字形上由表示“ng”声母的干派生而来的枝字分别表示“nghe”“ngon”“ngan”“nghi”“ngâm”五个音节。当干字与枝字互相拼合时，便取干字声母与枝字韵母拼合。例如表示声母“đ”的干字本身读音为“đông”，表示韵母“i”的枝字本身读音为“nghi”，当两者拼合时则表示“đi”音节。国音新字没有区分国语字的d和gi，可能是因为发明者以两者同音的北部口音为基础设计。但是，由于原文中并未给出使用这一字母体系书写的例文，只给出了汉喃字注音，并且一些喃字的读音难以确认，目前还未能确认每个枝字的具体读音。并且，根据研究，一些枝字明明写法不同，但是却表示了相同的韵母。[46]
国音新字的作者使用了四种笔画：横（一）、竖（丨）、点（丶）和撇（丿）（撇还有变体“㇏”）来创造干字和枝字。无论一个单字包含多少种笔画，该单字中笔画的总数（不区分笔画类型）都为四。
国音新字声调遵循传统四声划分：平、上、去、入，每声调进一步分阴阳两调，共八调。声调符号位于左下、左上、右上、右下方时分别表示平上去入四声，阴调以一个小半圆表示，阳调以一个小圆表示。值得注意的是，原枝字中将入声韵尾视作鼻音韵尾的入声调读法，因此枝字中并未包含单独的入声韵。入声韵由鼻音韵的枝字加上入声调符号表示。[46]
国音新字是越南人自创的一套拼音文字，它可以像汉字或喃字一样直书或横书。然而，由于它出现得太晚，没有足够的时间像日语假名一样普及开来。当时越南的社会政治形势复杂，也是一个原因。
国语字
[编辑]越南语拉丁字母或是越南语目前使用的文字。它最早由葡萄牙传教士在17世纪据葡萄牙语的拼写和字母表开发。200年来，国语字主要在天主教社区内使用。[24]:106法属印度支那时期，国语字得到进一步修订，1910年被纳入义务教育。[47]
同时文言文及其汉字写成的书面形式开始衰落。此时越南有四种互相竞争的书写系统：汉字、喃字、国语字、法语字母。[48]第一份国语字报纸《嘉定报》1865年就创刊了，但越南民族主义者直到一战都在用喃字。
从法国殖民统治下独立后，国语字成为了越南独立运动中最受欢迎的书面语。[49]
BBC记者阮江指出，虽然一般认为是早期基督教传教士创造了国语字，但他们做的并没有多么独特或困难，没有他们的发明，后来也会有人做。[50]他进一步指出，阮朝拉丁字母得以普及主要取决于法属印度支那知识分子的开拓性努力，以及法属印度支那政府的进步政策，为国语字的普及创造了莫大动力。[50]阮江表示，东京义塾实际上只是为阮朝精英们削除了使用国语字的耻辱感，而没有真正普及它。[50]
拉丁字母没能成为柬埔寨和寮国的书写系统的一个重要原因是阮朝皇帝们大力推广了拉丁文的使用。[50]据历史学家黎明凯于《成泰帝的教育革命》（2016）中的说法，法国人和革命者都没有足够的力量将国语字推广到村庄一级。[50]根据1906年出台的法令，成泰帝的父母可以决定他们的孩子要学“汉文”还是“南音”（即当时阮朝高层对国语字的称呼）。[50]这项法令是在其他社会变革，如男性剪掉长发的同时颁布的。[50]
从一开始我们就认识到，汉语是我们和当地人之间的障碍；象形文字所提供的教育完全超出了我们的范围；这种文字只能艰难地将他们在新的政治商业形势下所需要的各种思想传递给民众。如此，我们不得不遵循我们自己教育体系的传统；这是唯一能向殖民地安南人灌输欧洲文明的原则，并使他们不受邻国的敌对影响而使他们接近我们体系的方法。[24]:107
— 1866年1月15日，交趾支那总督办公室主任Paulin Vial一封信
受国语字教育普及的影响，不精通汉字的越南人无法阅读早期用汉喃书写的越南文本。汉喃研究院是全国性的汉喃文学学术研究中心。尽管越南一直试图通过学校教育或日常生活中的使用来恢复汉喃，但几乎所有的古诗词和文学作品都被翻译成了国语字，这使得汉喃的识字需求几乎消失了。然而，许多越南人发现自己很难从汉喃的文化遗产中脱离出来，他们仍觉得与汉字有种亲密的关系。
梵文、占文、高棉文、印度诸文字
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梵文 -
占文 -
占–越文 -
高棉文 -
高棉文 -
梵–高棉文
_marking_territories_free_from_taxes,_view_1,_sandstone_-_Museum_of_Vietnamese_History_-_Ho_Chi_Minh_City_-_DSC06099.JPG)
.jpg)
梵文或从汉语译经间接传到越南，或从占婆和高棉直接传到越南。至今仍保留的最重要的标之一是古老的美山圣地，有梵文和占文铭文。[51]武竟碑文也是东南亚最老的梵语碑文之一，是林邑、占婆、扶南等国的遗产。[52][53]现代越南语中最著名的梵语短语来自佛教咒语नमोऽमिताभाय/ Namo Amitābhāya / 南无阿弥陀佛，意为“归命无量光佛”或“我向无量光的启蒙者致敬/我转向依靠无量光的启蒙者”。[54]此外，越南许多地方都有高棉语地名，大都是扶南、真腊统治时期的名字，例如ស្រុកឃ្លាំង Srok Khleangis越南语中写作Sóc Trăng。湄公河三角洲受到的高棉文化影响尤为强烈。
傣担文
[编辑]傣担文是16世纪至今傣担及其他越南西北部台语民族使用的元音附标文字，源自兰纳泰文。
现代汉字与喃字的用途
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书法家们仍在越南新年等特殊场合书写汉字。[55]它们仍然存在于寺庙之外，仍为学术和宗教目的而研究。
国语字书法1950年代诞生以来，获得了巨大成功，使汉字书法受到了影响。
1990年代中期以来，无论汉字书法还是喃字书法，都收到了汉字教学回潮的影响。这有助于越南历史研究以及文化统一。[56]
对语言学家来说，汉字汉越音为研究古汉语提供了宝贵数据。
此外，许多越南人可以通过汉字学习其他语言，如汉语、日语、朝鲜语等。这样，他们最后也能一定程度上使用汉喃字。
汉喃字的意义有时也会出现在西方对越南的描述中，特别是法国统治时期。例如小说家E. M. Nathanson在《肮脏而遥远的战事》(1987)中提到了汉字。[57]
混合书写
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胡志明就用混合的拉丁-汉喃文书写。比较成功的汉喃复兴运动如越南汉喃复兴委员会（越南语：Ủy ban Phục sinh Hán Nôm Việt Nam／委班復生漢喃越南http://www.hannom-rcv.org/）。[58]
| 印度-阿拉伯数字系统 | 汉字 | 汉越音 | 喃字与现代国语字 | 法语 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 〇 | Linh | 空 | Không | zéro |
| 1 | 一 | Nhất | 𠬠 | Một | un |
| 2 | 二 | Nhị, nhì | 𠄩 | Hai | deux |
| 3 | 三 | Tam | 𠀧 | Ba | trois |
| 4 | 四 | Tứ, tư | 𦊚 | Bốn | quatre |
| 5 | 五 | Ngũ | 𠄼 | Năm | cinq |
| 6 | 六 | Lục | 𦒹 | Sáu | six |
| 7 | 七 | Thất | 𦉱 | Bảy | sept |
| 8 | 八 | Bát | 𠔭 | Tám | huit |
| 9 | 九 | Cửu | 𢒂 | Chín | neuf |
| 10 | 十 | Thập | 𨑮 | Mười | dix |
| 100 | 百 | Bách | 𤾓 | Trăm | cent |
| 1000 | 千 | Thiên | 𠦳 | Nghìn | mille |
| 10,000 | 万 | Vạn | 𨑮 𠦳 | Mười Nghìn | dix mille |
| 1,000,000 | 百万 | Bách vạn | 兆 | Triệu | un million |
另见
[编辑]相关的罗马化方案：
参考文献
[编辑]引用
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- ^ LaPolla, Randy J. Language Contact and Language Change in the History of the Sinitic Languages. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2010, 2 (5): 6858–6868. ISSN 1877-0428. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.036
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- ^ 5.0 5.1 Vietnamese literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2019-04-13]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-01） （英语）.
- ^ Asian & Pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs – Volumes 20–21 Cultural and Social Centre for the Asian and Pacific Region 1988 – Page 7 "... known script that was used by the Vietnamese, the "Southerners," to transcribe their language, in contrast to the Chinese ideographs (called chữ Hán i.e., "Chinese script," or chữ nho i.e. "Confucian script") of the "Northerners," the Chinese."
- ^ Vietnam 10 – Page 522 Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart – 2009 “几个世纪以来，越南语言都是用儒字书写的。大约在13世纪，越南人设计了他们自己的书写系统，称为喃字，它是由两个汉字组合或假借单个汉字实现的。这两种书写系统一直使用到20世纪--官方事务和学术研究用儒字书写，而喃字则用于流行文学。以拉丁文为基础的国语字要到一战后才被广泛使用，它是在17世纪由Alexandre de Rhodes开发的（见右图方框内的文字）。国语字大大削弱了官僚的地位，他们的权力是建立在传统的儒字、喃字的学术基础上的，而这些文字对大众来说基本上是不可触及的。”
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Hội Khai-trí tiến-đức. Việt-nam tự-điển. Văn Mới. 1954.
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Đào, Duy Anh. Hán-Việt từ-điển giản yếu. Nhà xuất bản Văn hoá Thông tin. 2005.
- ^ Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn. Nguồn gốc và quá trình hình thành cách đọc Hán Việt. Nhà xuất bản Đại học quốc gia Hà Nội. 2001.
- ^ Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn. Giáo trình lịch sử ngữ âm tiếng Việt (sơ thảo). Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục. 1995.
- ^ Marr, David G., Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945: 141, 1984,
Because the Chinese characters were pronounced according to Vietnamese preferences, and because certain stylistic modifications occurred over time, later scholars came to refer to a hybrid 'Sino-Vietnamese' (Han-Viet) language. However, there would seem to be no more justification for this term than for a Fifteenth Century 'Latin-English' versus the Latin written contemporaneously in Rome.
- ^ Nguyễn, Khuê. Chữ Nôm: cơ sở và nâng cao. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. 2009: 5, 215.
- ^ Hugh Dyson Walker East Asia A New History −2012 Page 262 "...chu nom, Vietnamese transcription, using Chinese and nom characters for Vietnamese sounds."
- ^ Denecke 2017.
- ^ Hannas, Wm. C. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 1997: 82. ISBN 9780824818920.
The linguistic defects are the same as those noted throughout this book for Chinese characters generally, caused by the large number of tokens (some twenty thousand in chữ nôm), the arbitrariness of their composition, and the inconsistent way the units and their components connect with the sounds of the language.
- ^ Trần, Văn Chánh. Tản mạn kinh nghiệm học chữ Hán cổ. Suối Nguồn, Tập 3&4 (Nhà xuất bản Tổng hợp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh). January 2012: 82.
- ^ Hung, Eva; Wakabayashi, Judy, Asian translation traditions: 174, 2005,
A large portion of the lexicon of the Vietnamese language in recent centuries derives from Hán. Consequently, there is a significant orthographic overlap between Hán and Nôm, which is to say that many characters are used in both with the same meaning. This is primarily a lexical, not a syntactic, phenomenon, although Hán grammar did influence Nôm prose to a relatively significant extent (Xtankevich 1986).
- ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Kiernan, Ben. Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present. Oxford University Press. 2017: 152 [2022-02-11]. ISBN 9780195160765. （原始内容存档于2022-02-11）.
- ^ Kornicki 2017.
- ^ Cœdès, George. The Making of South East Asia. 由H. M. Wright翻译. University of California Press. 1966: 87 [2022-02-11]. ISBN 9780520050617. （原始内容存档于2022-04-21）.
No work of literature from the brush of a Vietnamese survives from the period of Chinese rule prior to the rise of the first national dynasties; and from the Dinh, Former Le, and Ly dynasties, all that remains are some poems by Lac Thuan (end of the tenth century), Khuông Việt (same period), and Ly Thuong Kiet (last quarter of the eleventh century). Those competent to judge consider these works to be quite up to the best standards of Chinese literature.
- ^ Nick Ray; Yu-Mei Balasingamchow. Lonely Planet Vietnam. 2010.
Sino-Vietnamese literature was written in Chinese characters (chữ nho). Dominated by Confucian and Buddhist texts, it was governed by strict rules of metre and verse. Modern Vietnamese literature (quoc am) includes anything recorded in ...
- ^ Woodside, Alexander Barton. Vietnam and the Chinese Model. 1971: 53. ISBN 9780674937215.
Although traditional Vietnamese scholars called Sino-Vietnamese literature 'serious literature' and nôm literature 'the literature of pleasure', this dichotomy is obviously misleading.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Li 2020.
- ^ Nguyễn, Phạm Bằng. Thông tin thêm về bia đá cổ nhất Việt Nam. 2013-12-06 [2018-10-25]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-14）.
- ^ Trần Thế. Tiết lộ thú vị về tấm bia đá cổ nhất Việt Nam. 2019-10-02 [2021-02-12]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-11）.
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Ha 2018.
- ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Kiernan 2019.
- ^ Salmon 2004.
- ^ Salmon 2007.
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Nguyen 2008.
- ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 Pham 2013.
- ^ Miksic 2016.
- ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Whitmore 2015.
- ^ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Tran 2008.
- ^ Taylor 2018.
- ^ Pham 2013，第45页.
- ^ Bjarke Frellesvig A History of the Japanese Language 2010 – Page 258 "... the rendition of Chinese text in Japanese, which affected grammar and usage (see 9.1) and (kanbun-)ondoku, the vocalization of Chinese text as such, which paved the way for the intake of a large number of loanwords from Chinese (9.2).
- ^ Nichibunken newsletter Kokusai Nihon Bunka Kenkyū Sentā 1996 – No23–36 – Page 52 "The novel was then translated from Chinese into Vietnamese by a Vietnamese revolutionist. Knowledge of kanbun (classical Chinese) was quite common among Vietnamese intellectuals, and the new kanbun style of Liang Zhi-chau ..."
- ^ Hannas, Wm. C. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 1997: 77 [2022-02-11]. ISBN 9780824818920. （原始内容存档于2022-04-12）.
Sifting out Sinitic from native vocabulary is more of a problem in Vietnamese than in Japanese or even in Korean because of the longer history of contact between Chinese and Vietnamese, and because of the intimacy (most Vietnamese would...) Vietnam was under Chinese 'suzerainty'... During this long period, the Vietnamese language itself was overshadowed and to some extent replaced by Chinese, opening the door to thousands of Chinese terms...
- ^ Language research – Seoul University Language Research Centre 1990 – Volume 26 – Page 327 "The term Sinoxenic dialects was first used by Samuel Martin to refer to the foreign readings of Chinese characters, such as Sino-Korean, Sino-Japanese, and Sino- Vietnamese. By Sino-Korean, Sino- Japanese, and Sino- Vietnamese, ..."
- ^ John R. Bentley A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose 2001 – Page 39 "... (1975:195, fn. 3) and his reconstructions, but it is interesting to note that Pulleyblank's work actually supports Miller's claims. ... to have been one of the first linguists to notice the importance of SV in reconstructing earlier stages of Chinese."
- ^ Ha Minh Nguyen, Bac Hoai Tran, Tuan Duc Vuong Colloquial Vietnamese: The Complete Course for Beginners Routledge 2012 Page 3 "Because of thousands of years of Chinese domination and influence, the Vietnamese used Chinese characters known as chu nho as their official written language for many centuries. However chu nho was not easy to learn and only the ..."
- ^ D. W. Sloper, Thạc Cán Lê Higher Education in Vietnam: Change and Response 1995 Page 45 "All teaching materials are written in Han, Chinese classical characters known as chu nho. From about the thirteenth century a Vietnamese system of writing, chu nom or simply nom, was developed. ... chu nho was used for official business and scholarship, while chu nom was used for popular literature."
- ^ Tap chi Han Nom so 1/1989. [2022-02-11]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-11）.
- ^ 46.0 46.1 46.2 存档副本. [2022-02-11]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-11）.
- ^ Quoc-ngu | Vietnamese writing system. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2019-04-13]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-19） （英语）.
- ^ Andrew Simpson Language and national identity in Asia 2007 Page 428 "..there existed a situation in which there were briefly four different available writing systems in Vietnam, chu nho, chu nom, quoc ngu, and Romanized French. ... (4) The acceptability of quoc ngu was then further heightened by its use to translate works of literature from Chinese and chu nom, as well as through its ..."
- ^ Simon Eliot, Jonathan Rose A Companion to the History of the Book – Page 124 2009 "The first publication in quoc ngu was the first Vietnamese newspaper, Gia-dinh báo (Daily Paper, 1865), ... During World War I, the colonial administration encouraged quoc ngu journalism for propaganda purposes, and as a result journals"
- ^ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 Nguyễn Quang Duy. Quốc ngữ và nỗ lực 'thoát Hán' của các vua nhà Nguyễn.. Người Việt Daily News. 2018-09-12 [2021-09-15]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-11） （越南语）.
- ^ My Son Sanskrit texts to be translated into Vietnamese, English. en.nhandan.org.vn. [2021-04-06] （英语）.
- ^ The Inscription of Vo-Canh. www.meruheritage.com. [2021-04-06]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-07）.
- ^ Sanskrit inscriptions. Tamil and Vedas. [2021-04-06]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-11） （英语）.
- ^ https://kienthuc.net.vn. Nam Mô A Di Đà Phật có nghĩa là gì?. trithuccuocsong.vn. 2019-08-12 [2021-04-06]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-15）.
- ^ Vietnam Economic Times Volume 98 – Page 14 Viện kinh tế thế giới (Vietnam) "Today calligraphy is considered one of their most respected art forms. Vietnam also has a long history of calligraphy, but in its earliest form it was called Han Nom, a way of using the Chinese characters to convey Vietnamese words."
- ^ Simon Eliot, Jonathan Rose A Companion to the History of the Book Page 124 – 2011 "Since the use of quoc ngu for education has rendered most Vietnamese now incapable of reading earlier Vietnamese ... an increasing commitment to the publication of translations from Chinese or of transcriptions from nom texts to render ..."
- ^ E. M. Nathanson Dirty Distant War 1987 Page 121 "So they took the Chinese ideographs for those words, changed them a little to make them distinctive from the Chinese characters, and in that way developed a written language. That's the script that became what we refer to today as chữ nho."
- ^ (). www.hannomrcv.org. [2019-04-13]. （原始内容存档于2014-12-19）.
书目
[编辑]- Ha, Van Tan. Inscriptions from Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries recently discovered in Vietnam. Cornell University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-1-50171-899-1.
- Kiernan, Ben. Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present. Oxford University Press. 2019.
- Miksic, John Norman. Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge. 2016.
- Nguyen, Tai Thu. The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. 2008.
- Pham, T. T. V. Inscriptions during Ly period. TẠP CHÍ HÁN NÔM số 6. 2013, 121 （越南语）.
- Salmon, Claudine, Tang-Viet society as reflected in a Buddhist bell inscription, Shing, Müller; Höllmann, Thomas O. (编), Archäologie und Frühe Texte, Germany: Harrassowitz: 195–216, 2004, ISBN 978-3-447-05060-9
- ———, Transnational networks as reflected in epigraphy: the case of Chinese Buddhist bells in southeast Asia, Colin, Storey; Tan, Chee Beng (编), Chinese overseas : migration, research and documentation, Chinese University Press: 23–84, 2007, ISBN 978-9-62996-328-6
- Taylor, K. W. Tales from stone and paper about Do Anh Vu (1114–1159). Cornell University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-1-50171-899-1.
- Tran, T. G. H., BƯỚC ĐẦU TÌM HIỂU CHỮ NÔM TRONG CÁC BẢN VĂN KHẮC THỜI LÝ TRẦN, 2008 （越南语）
- Whitmore, John K., Building a Buddhist monarchy in Dai Viet: Temples and texts uder Ly Nhan Tong (1072-1127), Lammerts, Dietrich Christian (编), Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia, ISEAS Publishing, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: 283–306, 2015, ISBN 978-9-814-51906-9
- Denecke, Wiebke, Shared Literary Heritage, Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (编), The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 510–532, 2017, ISBN 978-0-199-35659-1
- Kornicki, Peter, Sino-Vietnamese literature, Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (编), The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 568–578, 2017, ISBN 978-0-199-35659-1
- Li, Yu. The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge. 2020. ISBN 978-1-00-069906-7.
外部链接
[编辑]- 漢字 Hán tự: A Vietnamese-Chinese wordlist (via Wayback Machine)
- Từ điển Hán Việt Thiều Chửu (漢越辭典) (via Wayback Machine)
- Hán Việt Từ Điển Trích Dẫn （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Vietnamese Han character dictionary
- Thiều Chửu dictionary （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Chữ viết tiếng Việt（包含尚未翻译信息）
- https://www.britannica.com/art/Vietnamese-literature （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）